CHAPTER 2

  

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0       DEFINITIONS OF GOOD MANAGEMENT OF INSTITUTIONS TO IMPROVE MANAGEMENT IN SCIENCE LABORATORY

According to Edward Deming, good management means that training must be given to the employee because how can staff or anybody else do their job properly if they do not know what their job is. Although workers more appreciate to their job and become satisfaction when they doing a good job (Neave, 2012). In other words, in educational sector, managing and transformation being effectively when there are including of professionals, administrators, politicians and other stakeholder as leading forces to the success in educational system. (Striano, 2009). Besides that, to control the work of academics and its pressure of capitalist development, it needs to explore the connection between the changes in organizations and control in academics such as teaching, administration, and research (Willmot, 1995). In others study, focus in laboratory, The OSHA Laboratory Standard and Hazard Communication standard have been used the guidelines for the purpose to manage the safety of the laboratories and pilot plant. This guideline starting to be implement because accident and injuries continuously happen in laboratory and for the safety management hope that accident risk will be reduce (H.A. Aziz, 2014). . One of the good management strategies before handling chemicals are most companies make some interview for the research to be ongoing, intensive for data collection to make them know which chemical hazard need to be restrict from the products and to take the safest alternatives way (Scruggs, 2013). Furthermore, from the researched of (Ray Borrow, 2014), safe laboratory handling of chemicals need to focus on the use of safety cabinets during the manipulation and also it should be reflected in local risk assessments, safe practices of equipment and facilities, competency and also immunisation policies/training. Other than that, as we always seen when insert into laboratory, there are poor record keeping and also poor inventory management. For more worry, there are no place for disposal out-of-date stock or expired chemicals (Dikabo Mogopodi B. P., 2015). Therefore, complete list of H (hazard statement) and P (precautionary statement) should be available in each laboratory for more concern (Melania fesztrova, 2015);

·         Ventilation management

Ventilation management should have in every laboratory in institution to control exposures of volatiles chemicals. Laboratory ventilation systems are energy-intensive and can develop some of innovative methods for incorporating sustainable energy into the laboratory ventilation design for the successful 21^st century of institutions (Sweet, 2013). In others studies, underfloor air distribution (UFAD) is one kind of air ventilation who used the underfloor plenum beneath a raised floor to provide the air conditioned through floor-mounted diffusers and it can discharged cool air both horizontal and vertical momentum components. This system can create a vertical temperature stratification when it is cooled and have impact on energy of chemical that volatiles in the laboratory. It also very easy to located everywhere on the large surface area of a raised access floo (systemsPaul Raftery, 2015). Furthermore, to solve gas disaster problem in laboratory, the management need to increase the air fresh volumes in the ventilation network. U + L type of ventilation network need to be performed and gas problem cannot be solved only by increasing the fresh air volume but it also need to resolve by combined multiple technological methods such as gas drainage tunnel (Haoran Zhang, 2015). The ventilation air system must be opening and silence using open area ratio for the airflow and open area sound. Higher the open area ratio indicates better performance (Chris Bibby, 2014).

Table 2.0  List of hazard H (hazard statement) and P (precautionary statement).

Sections	Sections
1.       Identification of manufacturer, name of chemical substance or chemical mixture	2.       Physical and chemical                     properties
3.       Hazard identification	4.       Stability and reactivity
5.       Compositions/information on ingredients	6.       Toxicological information
7.       First aid-measures	8.       Ecological Information
9.       Fire-fighting measures	10.    Disposal consideration
11.    Accidental release measures	12.    Transport Information
13.    Handling and sorage	14.    Regulatory information

2.1       BENEFICIAL OF USING STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES IN GOOD MANAGEMENT

Standard Operating procedures (SOP) is based on methodology and usually provided by the Association of Science. The guideline SOP aims to facilitate for the future projects, to streamline the consensus process and to ensure the quality and also the transparency (Nutrition., 2015). Furthermore, Standard Operating Procedures also means to remove variation of work performance that happen when people completing the same work process in different ways. Thus, process actually some kind of actions that workers need to complete their job with success (Stup, 2002). Besides that, Maria Moreno, 2015 use standard operating procedures (SOPs) to identify the material for sample collection, preparation and also good storage for the study of biomarkers of ageing. SOPs also cover for all aspects for the subject’s recruitment, shipment, collection, and distribution of biological sample and give beneficial for the binding of the project (María Moreno-Villanueva, 2015). Other than that, Written Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) are taken by the company of organizations like health professionals as a proof that they can provide the safest care and it is one part of quality control in management process together with the connection of Law policy (Izabella Thomas, 2015).

2.2       PRECAUTIONS OF HANDLING CHEMICALS

Risk prevention in chemical laboratories need to have perfect knowledge of chemical’s effects and always have observance instructions for their handling (Melania fesztrova, 2015). One of the good precautions of handling chemicals in the laboratory, different types of chemicals must be stored in proper way and also to make sure it is safe because careless mistakes will create accidents and material losses (P. Sivaprakash, 2014). In France, the hygiene and safety correspondent in research laboratories need to be establish and update every year the list of chemicals used. This is because most of the chemicals in laboratories tend to be keep and become old products. The use of date also has been an expired and most of it not being used for over a year and this matter will bring to the increase of hazard (Fanny Bourrée, 2014). In others study, the information of process chemicals need to be characterised accurately of  fire and explosion, reactivity hazard, safety and health hazards to person, the erosive and corrosive effects on the instrumentation and equipment and incompatibility existence between materials that is always found around the process (H.A. Aziz, 2014). Furthermore, sometimes hazard that associated with liquid chemicals especially in tankers are more complex and dangerous compare to others, therefore extra knowledge, skills, and precautions needed for someone who work in the dangerous place that have heavy load of chemicals for example in tankers. Potential risks should be identified early with some observation of the frequencies of incidents and also the consequences in case the accidents/incidents might happen (Arslan, 2009). On the other hand, ensure that labels on hazardous chemicals are not removed or defaced and MSDS contains precautions of information must have for the employee’s references which given information about handling and using harmful substances and including some information about health hazards, fire and explosion hazards, physical characteristics, hazardous ingredients, personal protective equipment, and spill procedures (U.S Department of Labor OSHA, 2002). Besides that, for safety of students that we must concern, some recommendations need to be follow by the management are before doing some experiments using chemicals, the instructor need to demonstrate it first to the students on how to use it in proper way. Second, Students should be train using proper personal protective equipment (PPE) every time they do experiments in laboratory and last but not least, students also should be trained in the environmental impact of chemicals (Lester Bynam, 2008).

Figure 2.0 Residue from incompatible chemicals stored together corroding the storage cabinet in laboratory

Figure 2.1 Chemical storage containers with faded labels

2.3       STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE AND BEHAVIOR IN LABORATORY

Laboratory skills and learning outcomes by students has been ignored to the great extent. University students should have positive attitude in learning science skills and science content when they are in science laboratory. This is important for them because it can affect the efficiency of lab training and it is important for their future to do research in science field. (Murat Akçayır, 2015). In addition, research in science of education has shown that students’ interpretations and idea actually more based on their everyday life experiences and language with some learning of scientific knowledge that has been introduced during science classes and their ability to gain information from the scientific correct idea (Zacharia, 2007 as cited in Mohammad Reza Farrokhnia, 2009). When students have improved their skills integrated new knowledge and attitude, they become improve in the laboratory tasks and also they reached responsibility concerning to acquire quality management, more respect to the environment and also towards safety (Javier Fernandez, 2015). Furthermore in Sendil Can et.al, 2014 study for pre-service science teachers’ attitudes towards laboratory safety indicate that, they can make use of their experience during practical and skill their gain in their daily lives. They believe that the positive attitudes and knowledge they develop towards laboratory safety especially handling chemicals stuff can be more effective during their professional career. In others study, pre-service science teachers self-efficacy and their anxiety towards chemistry laboratory have negative relationship which is self-efficacy actually have negative predictor towards chemistry laboratory anxiety and higher anxiety in the chemistry laboratory have lower level of self-efficacy (Fatma Gulay Kirbaslar,2014). Teachers who get workshop training also share their view that the experience their gained will serve to stimulate all of their students to become more interested to learn science subject such as chemistry and biology in laboratory work while doing the experiments ( Eugenia Flora Rosa Cossa, 2015). Besides that, the use of safety teams is kind of useful way to bond students with safety education in laboratory and they respect to use the PPE, lab cleanliness and also the waste collection. Safety teams also encourage students about safety conversation and performance critique during lab experiments. They become critical evaluation of lab practice and increase their attentiveness to laboratory safety and also they have professionalism attitude in the labs (Peter J.Alaimo, 2010).

2.4       KNOWLEDGE AND SAFETY AWARENESS BETWEEN GENDERS

There is a body of evidence suggesting that females are more likely to search for information seeking than males. The results from health information trends survey (HINTS) show that females like to gain information about everything over the internet over time than males (Manierre, 2015). In the terms of laboratory education, the pre-service science teachers’ attitudes towards laboratory safety are not significantly affected by variables such as gender especially to do their practical successfully and gain experience and develop towards laboratory safety (Sendil Can, 2014). From others study, according from the result, female students’ self-efficacy levels in laboratory are higher in the terms of the gender variables but there are no significance different for pre service science teachers’ anxiety levels affected by the gender (Fatma Gulay Kirbaslar,2014). Based on Arbaat Hassan, 2009 study, there are no significance different based on genders in knowledge, awareness and practices towards environment in laboratory, but in terms of attitudes, females students had the higher attitudes towards environment in laboratory compared to males students (Arbaat Hassan, 2009).

2.5       TYPES OF HAZARDOUS AND NON-HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS

Hazardous chemicals mostly present physical or health treats to students, workers in industrial, academic laboratories and clinical in laboratories. They include carcinogens, toxins, irritants, corrosives, sensitizers, hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins, neurotoxins as well as agents that act on the hematopoietic systems or damage the lungs, skin, eyes, or mucous membranes (U.S Department of Labor OSHA, 2002). When chemicals contact with hazard of wounding (cutting, burning, alkali-burning), hot, caustic or corrosive chemicals it is become extremely dangerous and extra care need to be implement (Melania Feszterova, 2015)

Figure 2.2 Example of chemicals that could be explosive found in the laboratory

List of chemical inventory that should be completed by institutions and school instructor should prepare in table 2.2 (Lester Bynam, 2008).

Table 2.1 Abbreviations used in the table 2.2

Abbreviations used in the table
abs	absorption (skin)
CNS	central nervous system
IARC	International Agency for Research on Cancer
ing	ingestion
inh	inhalation
NTP	National Toxicology Program
resp	respiratory
RA	reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen (NTP designation)
rxn	Reaction

Table 2.2 List of chemicals and relevant hazard.

Chemical	Relevant Hazard
Acetal	Forms explosive peroxides without concerntration
Acetonitrile	Toxic(inh, ing, abs)
Acetyl bromide	Irritant (skin, eyes, resp); violent rxn with water
Acetyl chloride	Irritant (resp), toxic; violent rxn with water
Acrylamide (IARC 2B)	Neurotoxin; carcinogen; toxic (abs)
Aluminum chloride, anhydrous	Violent rxn with water
Antimony, powder	Dust fire/explosion hazard; contact with acid forms SbH3; poison (inh, ing)
Asbestos	Carcinogen
Barium chromate	Carcinogen (Cr(VI))
Benzene	Carcinogen
Benzidine	Carcinogen
Benzoyl nitrate	Unstable compound. Explosive decomposition in water; heat and light sensitive explosive
Bromine	Oxidizer; corrosive; violent rxn with several compounds
Bromoform	Irritant (skin, eyes, resp); lachrymator; poison (ing)
Cadmium and its compounds	Carcinogen
Calcium carbide	Dangerous when wet (liberates acetylene)
Calcium cyanide	Poison (inh, ing)
Carbon disulfide	Extremely flammable; acute CNS/peripheral toxin; reproductive toxin
Carbon monoxide	Toxic
Chlorine	Oxidizer, corrosive; irritant (inh); poison (inh)
Diaminotrinitrobenzene	Highly explosive
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane	Carcinogen
Dimethylaniline	Poison (inh, ing, abs)
Dinitrophenol	Explosive
Ethyl ether	Forms peroxides
Ethylene dichloride (1,2-dichloroethane)	Toxic (inh, ing)
Ethylene oxide	Explosive; poison (ing, abs) carcinogen
Ferrous sulfide	Water reactive
Fluorine	Powerful oxidizing agent; poison (inh, ing, abs)
Hydrazine (IARC 2B)	Powerful reducing agent; explosive; corrosive; carcinogen
Hydrofluoric acid and solutions containing HF	Corrosive; may be fatal if inhaled or ingested (liquid and vapour can cause severe burns not always immediately painful or visible but possibly fatal)
Hydrogen	Flammable gas
Hydrogen bromide (anhydrous)	Poison (inh); corrosive
Hydrogen chloride (anhydrous)	Poison (inh); corrosive
Hydrogen sulfide, gas	Poison (inh); flammable
Lithium nitrate	Oxidizer
Magnesium, metal	Water reactive; violent rxn with many compounds
Mercuric compounds	Neurotoxic
Mercury	Poison (inh)
Methyl bromide	Poison (inh)
a-Naphthylamine	Carcinogen
Nitric oxide	Corrosive; poison (inh); irritant (skin, eye, resp)
Nitrobenzene	Poison (inh, ing, abs)
Perchloric acid	Powerful oxidizer when hot; violent rxn with many compounds when hot
Phosphorous pentasulfide	Water reactive; poison (ing); irritant (skin, eye)
Potassium sulfide	Spontaneously combustible; explosive in dust or powder form; poison (inh, ing)
Silver cyanide	Poison (inh, ing, abs)
Silver nitrate	Oxidizer; corrosive; may be fatal if ingested; poison (ing); incompatible with many compounds
Sodium chromate	Oxidizer; corrosive; carcinogen (Cr(VI))
Sodium sulfide	Poison (ing); spont. combustable
Tetrafluoroethylene	Forms explosive peroxides