LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 DEFINITIONS OF GOOD MANAGEMENT OF
INSTITUTIONS TO IMPROVE MANAGEMENT IN SCIENCE LABORATORY
According
to Edward Deming, good management means that training must be given to the
employee because how can staff or anybody else do their job properly if they do
not know what their job is. Although workers more appreciate to their job and
become satisfaction when they doing a good job (Neave, 2012). In other words, in
educational sector, managing and transformation being effectively when there
are including of professionals, administrators, politicians and other
stakeholder as leading forces to the success in educational system. (Striano, 2009). Besides that, to
control the work of academics and its pressure of capitalist development, it
needs to explore the connection between the changes in organizations and
control in academics such as teaching, administration, and research (Willmot, 1995). In others study,
focus in laboratory, The OSHA Laboratory Standard and Hazard Communication
standard have been used the guidelines for the purpose to manage the safety of
the laboratories and pilot plant. This guideline starting to be implement
because accident and injuries continuously happen in laboratory and for the
safety management hope that accident risk will be reduce (H.A. Aziz, 2014). . One of the good
management strategies before handling chemicals are most companies make some
interview for the research to be ongoing, intensive for data collection to make
them know which chemical hazard need to be restrict from the products and to
take the safest alternatives way (Scruggs, 2013). Furthermore, from
the researched of (Ray Borrow, 2014), safe laboratory
handling of chemicals need to focus on the use of safety cabinets during the
manipulation and also it should be reflected in local risk assessments, safe
practices of equipment and facilities, competency and also immunisation
policies/training. Other than that, as we always seen when insert into
laboratory, there are poor record keeping and also poor inventory management.
For more worry, there are no place for disposal out-of-date stock or expired
chemicals (Dikabo Mogopodi B. P., 2015). Therefore, complete
list of H (hazard statement) and P (precautionary statement) should be
available in each laboratory for more concern (Melania fesztrova, 2015);
·
Ventilation
management
Ventilation
management should have in every laboratory in institution to control exposures
of volatiles chemicals. Laboratory ventilation systems are energy-intensive and
can develop some of innovative methods for incorporating sustainable energy
into the laboratory ventilation design for the successful 21st
century of institutions (Sweet, 2013). In others studies,
underfloor air distribution (UFAD) is one kind of air ventilation who used the
underfloor plenum beneath a raised floor to provide the air conditioned through
floor-mounted diffusers and it can discharged cool air both horizontal and
vertical momentum components. This system can create a vertical temperature
stratification when it is cooled and have impact on energy of chemical that
volatiles in the laboratory. It also very easy to located everywhere on the
large surface area of a raised access floo (systemsPaul Raftery, 2015). Furthermore, to
solve gas disaster problem in laboratory, the management need to increase the
air fresh volumes in the ventilation network. U + L type of ventilation network
need to be performed and gas problem cannot be solved only by increasing the
fresh air volume but it also need to resolve by combined multiple technological
methods such as gas drainage tunnel (Haoran Zhang, 2015). The ventilation air
system must be opening and silence using open area ratio for the airflow and
open area sound. Higher the open area ratio indicates better performance (Chris Bibby, 2014).
Table 2.0 List of hazard H (hazard statement) and
P (precautionary statement).
|
Sections
|
Sections
|
|
1.
Identification of manufacturer, name of chemical
substance or chemical mixture
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2.
Physical and chemical properties
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|
3.
Hazard identification
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4.
Stability and reactivity
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5.
Compositions/information on ingredients
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6.
Toxicological information
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7.
First aid-measures
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8.
Ecological Information
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9.
Fire-fighting measures
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10.
Disposal consideration
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11.
Accidental release measures
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12.
Transport Information
|
|
13.
Handling and sorage
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14.
Regulatory information
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2.1 BENEFICIAL OF USING STANDARD OPERATING
PROCEDURES IN GOOD MANAGEMENT
Standard
Operating procedures (SOP) is based on methodology and usually provided by the
Association of Science. The guideline SOP aims to facilitate for the future
projects, to streamline the consensus process and to ensure the quality and
also the transparency (Nutrition., 2015). Furthermore,
Standard Operating Procedures also means to remove variation of work
performance that happen when people completing the same work process in
different ways. Thus, process actually some kind of actions that workers need
to complete their job with success (Stup, 2002). Besides that, Maria
Moreno, 2015 use standard operating procedures (SOPs) to identify the material
for sample collection, preparation and also good storage for the study of
biomarkers of ageing. SOPs also cover for all aspects for the subject’s
recruitment, shipment, collection, and distribution of biological sample and
give beneficial for the binding of the project (María Moreno-Villanueva,
2015).
Other than that, Written Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) are taken by the
company of organizations like health professionals as a proof that they can
provide the safest care and it is one part of quality control in management
process together with the connection of Law policy (Izabella Thomas, 2015).
2.2 PRECAUTIONS
OF HANDLING CHEMICALS
Risk
prevention in chemical laboratories need to have perfect knowledge of
chemical’s effects and always have observance instructions for their handling
(Melania fesztrova, 2015). One of
the good precautions of handling chemicals in the laboratory, different types
of chemicals must be stored in proper way and also to make sure it is safe
because careless mistakes will create accidents and material losses (P. Sivaprakash, 2014). In France, the
hygiene and safety correspondent in research laboratories need to be establish
and update every year the list of chemicals used. This is because most of the
chemicals in laboratories tend to be keep and become old products. The use of
date also has been an expired and most of it not being used for over a year and
this matter will bring to the increase of hazard (Fanny Bourrée, 2014). In others study,
the information of process chemicals need to be characterised accurately of fire and explosion, reactivity hazard, safety
and health hazards to person, the erosive and corrosive effects on the
instrumentation and equipment and incompatibility existence between materials
that is always found around the process (H.A. Aziz, 2014). Furthermore,
sometimes hazard that associated with liquid chemicals especially in tankers
are more complex and dangerous compare to others, therefore extra knowledge,
skills, and precautions needed for someone who work in the dangerous place that
have heavy load of chemicals for example in tankers. Potential risks should be
identified early with some observation of the frequencies of incidents and also
the consequences in case the accidents/incidents might happen (Arslan, 2009). On the other hand,
ensure that labels on hazardous chemicals are not removed or defaced and MSDS
contains precautions of information must have for the employee’s references
which given information about handling and using harmful substances and
including some information about health hazards, fire and explosion hazards,
physical characteristics, hazardous ingredients, personal protective equipment,
and spill procedures (U.S Department of Labor OSHA, 2002). Besides that, for
safety of students that we must concern, some recommendations need to be follow
by the management are before doing some experiments using chemicals, the
instructor need to demonstrate it first to the students on how to use it in
proper way. Second, Students should be train using proper personal protective
equipment (PPE) every time they do experiments in laboratory and last but not
least, students also should be trained in the environmental impact of chemicals
(Lester Bynam, 2008).
Figure 2.0 Residue from
incompatible chemicals stored together corroding the storage cabinet in
laboratory
Figure 2.1 Chemical storage
containers with faded labels
2.3 STUDENTS’
KNOWLEDGE AND BEHAVIOR IN LABORATORY
Laboratory
skills and learning outcomes by students has been ignored to the great extent.
University students should have positive attitude in learning science skills
and science content when they are in science laboratory. This is important for
them because it can affect the efficiency of lab training and it is important
for their future to do research in science field. (Murat Akçayır, 2015). In addition,
research in science of education has shown that students’ interpretations and
idea actually more based on their everyday life experiences and language with
some learning of scientific knowledge that has been introduced during science
classes and their ability to gain information from the scientific correct idea
(Zacharia, 2007 as cited in Mohammad Reza Farrokhnia, 2009). When students have
improved their skills integrated new knowledge and attitude, they become
improve in the laboratory tasks and also they reached responsibility concerning
to acquire quality management, more respect to the environment and also towards
safety (Javier Fernandez, 2015). Furthermore in
Sendil Can et.al, 2014 study for pre-service science teachers’ attitudes
towards laboratory safety indicate that, they can make use of their experience
during practical and skill their gain in their daily lives. They believe that
the positive attitudes and knowledge they develop towards laboratory safety
especially handling chemicals stuff can be more effective during their
professional career. In others study, pre-service science teachers
self-efficacy and their anxiety towards chemistry laboratory have negative
relationship which is self-efficacy actually have negative predictor towards
chemistry laboratory anxiety and higher anxiety in the chemistry laboratory
have lower level of self-efficacy (Fatma Gulay Kirbaslar,2014). Teachers who
get workshop training also share their view that the experience their gained
will serve to stimulate all of their students to become more interested to
learn science subject such as chemistry and biology in laboratory work while
doing the experiments ( Eugenia Flora Rosa Cossa, 2015). Besides that, the use
of safety teams is kind of useful way to bond students with safety education in
laboratory and they respect to use the PPE, lab cleanliness and also the waste
collection. Safety teams also encourage students about safety conversation and
performance critique during lab experiments. They become critical evaluation of
lab practice and increase their attentiveness to laboratory safety and also
they have professionalism attitude in the labs (Peter J.Alaimo, 2010).
2.4 KNOWLEDGE AND SAFETY AWARENESS BETWEEN
GENDERS
There
is a body of evidence suggesting that females are more likely to search for
information seeking than males. The results from health information trends
survey (HINTS) show that females like to gain information about everything over
the internet over time than males (Manierre, 2015). In the terms of
laboratory education, the pre-service science teachers’ attitudes towards
laboratory safety are not significantly affected by variables such as gender
especially to do their practical successfully and gain experience and develop
towards laboratory safety (Sendil Can, 2014). From others study, according from
the result, female students’ self-efficacy levels in laboratory are higher in
the terms of the gender variables but there are no significance different for
pre service science teachers’ anxiety levels affected by the gender (Fatma
Gulay Kirbaslar,2014). Based on Arbaat Hassan, 2009 study, there are no
significance different based on genders in knowledge, awareness and practices
towards environment in laboratory, but in terms of attitudes, females students
had the higher attitudes towards environment in laboratory compared to males
students (Arbaat Hassan, 2009).
2.5 TYPES
OF HAZARDOUS AND NON-HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
Hazardous
chemicals mostly present physical or health treats to students, workers in
industrial, academic laboratories and clinical in laboratories. They include carcinogens,
toxins, irritants, corrosives, sensitizers, hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins,
neurotoxins as well as agents that act on the hematopoietic systems or damage
the lungs, skin, eyes, or mucous membranes (U.S Department of Labor OSHA,
2002). When chemicals contact with hazard of wounding (cutting, burning,
alkali-burning), hot, caustic or corrosive chemicals it is become extremely
dangerous and extra care need to be implement (Melania Feszterova, 2015)
Figure 2.2 Example of chemicals that could be
explosive found in the laboratory
List
of chemical inventory that should be completed by institutions and school
instructor should prepare in table 2.2 (Lester Bynam, 2008).
Table
2.1 Abbreviations
used in the table 2.2
|
Abbreviations
used in the table
|
|
abs
|
absorption
(skin)
|
|
CNS
|
central
nervous system
|
|
IARC
|
International Agency for
Research
on Cancer
|
|
ing
|
ingestion
|
|
inh
|
inhalation
|
|
NTP
|
National
Toxicology Program
|
|
resp
|
respiratory
|
|
RA
|
reasonably anticipated to be a
human
carcinogen (NTP designation)
|
|
rxn
|
Reaction
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Table
2.2 List
of chemicals and relevant hazard.
|
Chemical
|
Relevant
Hazard
|
|
Acetal
|
Forms
explosive peroxides without concerntration
|
|
Acetonitrile
|
Toxic(inh,
ing, abs)
|
|
Acetyl
bromide
|
Irritant
(skin, eyes, resp); violent rxn with water
|
|
Acetyl
chloride
|
Irritant
(resp), toxic; violent rxn with water
|
|
Acrylamide
(IARC 2B)
|
Neurotoxin;
carcinogen; toxic (abs)
|
|
Aluminum
chloride, anhydrous
|
Violent
rxn with water
|
|
Antimony,
powder
|
Dust
fire/explosion hazard; contact with acid forms SbH3;
poison
(inh, ing)
|
|
Asbestos
|
Carcinogen
|
|
Barium
chromate
|
Carcinogen
(Cr(VI))
|
|
Benzene
|
Carcinogen
|
|
Benzidine
|
Carcinogen
|
|
Benzoyl
nitrate
|
Unstable
compound. Explosive decomposition in water; heat and light sensitive
explosive
|
|
Bromine
|
Oxidizer;
corrosive; violent rxn with several compounds
|
|
Bromoform
|
Irritant
(skin, eyes, resp); lachrymator; poison (ing)
|
|
Cadmium
and its compounds
|
Carcinogen
|
|
Calcium
carbide
|
Dangerous
when wet (liberates acetylene)
|
|
Calcium
cyanide
|
Poison
(inh, ing)
|
|
Carbon
disulfide
|
Extremely
flammable; acute CNS/peripheral toxin; reproductive toxin
|
|
Carbon monoxide
|
Toxic
|
|
Chlorine
|
Oxidizer,
corrosive; irritant (inh); poison (inh)
|
|
Diaminotrinitrobenzene
|
Highly
explosive
|
|
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane
|
Carcinogen
|
|
Dimethylaniline
|
Poison
(inh, ing, abs)
|
|
Dinitrophenol
|
Explosive
|
|
Ethyl
ether
|
Forms
peroxides
|
|
Ethylene
dichloride
(1,2-dichloroethane)
|
Toxic
(inh, ing)
|
|
Ethylene
oxide
|
Explosive;
poison (ing, abs) carcinogen
|
|
Ferrous
sulfide
|
Water
reactive
|
|
Fluorine
|
Powerful
oxidizing agent; poison (inh, ing, abs)
|
|
Hydrazine
(IARC 2B)
|
Powerful
reducing agent; explosive; corrosive; carcinogen
|
|
Hydrofluoric
acid and
solutions
containing HF
|
Corrosive; may
be fatal if inhaled or ingested (liquid and vapour can cause severe burns not
always immediately painful or visible but possibly fatal)
|
|
Hydrogen
|
Flammable
gas
|
|
Hydrogen
bromide (anhydrous)
|
Poison
(inh); corrosive
|
|
Hydrogen
chloride (anhydrous)
|
Poison
(inh); corrosive
|
|
Hydrogen
sulfide, gas
|
Poison
(inh); flammable
|
|
Lithium
nitrate
|
Oxidizer
|
|
Magnesium,
metal
|
Water
reactive; violent rxn with many compounds
|
|
Mercuric
compounds
|
Neurotoxic
|
|
Mercury
|
Poison
(inh)
|
|
Methyl
bromide
|
Poison
(inh)
|
|
a-Naphthylamine
|
Carcinogen
|
|
Nitric
oxide
|
Corrosive;
poison (inh); irritant (skin, eye, resp)
|
|
Nitrobenzene
|
Poison
(inh, ing, abs)
|
|
Perchloric
acid
|
Powerful
oxidizer when hot; violent rxn with many compounds
when
hot
|
|
Phosphorous
pentasulfide
|
Water
reactive; poison (ing); irritant (skin, eye)
|
|
Potassium
sulfide
|
Spontaneously
combustible; explosive in dust or powder form;
poison
(inh, ing)
|
|
Silver
cyanide
|
Poison
(inh, ing, abs)
|
|
Silver
nitrate
|
Oxidizer;
corrosive; may be fatal if ingested; poison (ing);
incompatible
with many compounds
|
|
Sodium
chromate
|
Oxidizer;
corrosive; carcinogen (Cr(VI))
|
|
Sodium
sulfide
|
Poison
(ing); spont. combustable
|
|
Tetrafluoroethylene
|
Forms
explosive peroxides
|
